Ancient Roman Sandals and Other Footwear

Considering how prized modern Italian leather goods are today, it is perhaps not too surprising that there was a good deal of variety of the types of ancient Roman sandals and shoes. The shoe-maker (sutor) was a valued craftsman in the days of the Roman Empire, and the Romans contributed the entire-foot-encasing shoe to the Mediterranean world. Roman Footwear Innovations Archaeological studies indicate that the Romans brought the shoe-making technology of vegetal tanning to Northwestern Europe. Tanning can be accomplished by the treatment of animal skins with oils or fats or by smoking, but none of those methods result in permanent and water-resistant leather. True tanning uses vegetable extracts to create a chemically stable product, which is resistant to bacterial decay, and has resulted in the preservation of many examples of ancient shoes from damp environments such as riverside encampments and backfilled wells. The spread of vegetable tanning technology was almost certainly an outgrowth of the imperial Roman army and its supply requirements. Most of the earliest preserved shoes have been found in early Roman military establishments in Europe and Egypt. The earliest preserved Roman footwear found so far was made in the 4th century BCE, although it is still unknown where the technology originated. In addition, the Romans innovated a variety of distinctive shoe styles, the most obvious of which are hobnailed shoes and sandals. Even the single-piece shoes developed by the Romans are significantly different from the pre-Roman native footwear. The Romans are also responsible for the innovation of owning multiple pairs of shoes for different occasions. The crew of a grain ship sunk in the Rhine River about 210 CE each owned one closed pair and one pair of sandals. Civilian Shoes and Boots The Latin word for generic sandals is sandalia or soleae; for shoes and shoe-boots the word was calcei, related to the word for heel (calx). Sebesta and Bonfante (2001) report that these types of shoes were specifically worn with the toga and so were forbidden to slaves. In addition, there were slippers (socci) and theatrical footwear, like the cothurnus. The generic calceus was made of soft leather, completely covered the foot and was fastened in front with thongs. Some early shoes had pointed upward curving toes (calcei repandi), and were both laced and strapped into place. Later shoes had rounded toes.The wet weather called for a boot called the pero, which was made of rawhide. Calcamen was the name of a shoe that reached mid-calf.The black leather senators shoe or calceus senatorius had four straps (corrigiae). A senators shoes were decorated with a crescent shape on the top. Except for color and price, the senators shoe was similar to the patricians costlier red high-soled calceus mulleus fastened with hooks and straps around the ankle.Caligae muliebres were unstudded boots for women. Another diminutive was the calceoli, which was a little shoe or half boot for women. Footwear for a Roman Soldier According to some artistic representations, Roman soldiers wore embromides, impressive dress boots with a feline head that came nearly to the knees. They have never been found archaeologically, so it is possible that these were an artistic convention and never made for production. Regular soldiers had shoes called campagi militares and the well-ventilated marching boot, caliga (with the diminutive caligula used as a nickname for the 3rd Roman emperor). Caliga had extra thick soles and were studded with hobnails. Roman Sandals There were also house sandals or soleae to wear when Roman citizens were dressed in tunica and stola—soleae were thought inappropriate for wear with togas or palla. Roman sandals consisted of a leather sole attached to the foot with interlacing thongs. The sandals were removed before reclining for a feast and at the conclusion of the feast, the diners requested their sandals. References Sebesta JL, and Bonfante L. 2001. The World of Roman Costume. Madison: University of Wisconsin.van Driel-Murray C. 2001. Vindolanda and the Dating of Roman Footwear. Britannia 32:185-197.

Key Developments Within Coso 2013-15 - 1508 Words

IMPLEMENTATION Key Developments within COSO 2013-15 †¢ COSO released an updated internal control- integrated framework in 2013 which will supersede the 1992 framework by Dec 14 2014 †¢ The SEC has stated the staff intends to monitor the transition for issuers using the 1992 Framework to evaluate rather any staff of commission action will be needed in the future. As the Framework was updated on Dec 14 2014 the staff that still abide by the 1992 Framework are likely to be questioned by the SEC regarding whether or not the 1992 Framework is a suitable framework †¢ It is recommended that the SEC registrants that are subject to reporting requirements related to internal controls (ICRF) use the 2013 framework for reporting periods ending after Dec†¦show more content†¦(pcaobus) The Importance of the COSO Framework †¢ The objective for COSO updating the framework included clarifying requirements for effective internal control, addressing relevant changes in business that introduce or elevate the risk of achieving entity objectives, †¢ The 2013 framework includes two new requirements –each of the five components of internal control and relevant principles is present and functioning-the five components of internal control operate together in an integrated manner †¢ The seventeen principles laid out in the 2013 framework are fundamental concepts that are associated with the five components of internal control. The 2013 framework requires that each relevant principle be present and functioning in order to demonstrate that all five components are present and functioning †¢ COSO does not believe that the additional criteria changed what is required for an effective system of internal control over financial reporting. Even so as managers and internal auditors access the design and effectiveness of the companies ICFR they may identify internal control deficits that require remediation during 2014. The COSO Framework The COSO Framework is made of five interrelated parts that are essential to successfully operating a business. These components are: I. Control

How to Write an Sop for Grad School Free Essays

HOW TO WRITE A WINNING STATEMENT OF PURPOSE FOR A GRADUATE SCHOOL Compiled by Shoukat Iqbal Khattak Faculty Member Bahria University of Management Sciences-Karachi campus E-mail:shoukat. iqbal@bimcs. edu. We will write a custom essay sample on How to Write an Sop for Grad School or any similar topic only for you Order Now pk Developed Created by Anthony O. Okobi using: STATEMENT OF PURPOSE Table of Content 1. Introduction:What, Why and How of Statement of Purpose. 2. Stage I: Do your Homework 3. Stage II:Reflect and Brainstorm (on paper) 4. Stage III:Outline your Statement of Purpose 5. Stage IV:Write Draft of Statement of Purpose 6. Stage V:Ask for Critique, Revise and Edit . Example:Sample Statement of Purpose Introduction A written statement of purpose is a standard requirement for graduate school admission. It is a tool for the faculty on graduate school admissions committees to assess the knowledge, experience, motivation, intellectual maturity and readiness of applicants to pursue graduate education at their institution. The statement of purpose is a crucial component of the graduate school admissions process. It can determine whether an applicant is accepted or rejected, irrespective of their other qualifications. This document outlines the 5 stages that a graduate school applicant should go through in order to write an impressive and successful statement of purpose. Stage I: Do your Homework 1. Browse through the websites of the schools/departments/programs of interest to you. Obtain brochures and booklets and read through them carefully. Highlight the aspects of the programs that appeal to you. 2. Read up on the research interests and projects of the faculty in the schools/departments/programs. Read publications from a faculty of interest. 3. Browse through recent articles from the research field of interest and try to get a general understanding of how the field developed and what are its current problems and challenges. Stage II: Reflect and Brainstorm (on paper) 1. Reflect on your intellectual development. †¢ What and when were the major moments in your life that have led you to your current research interest(s) and school/department/program? †¢ What or who influenced your decision or interest (i. e. role models)? †¢ What quality about them appealed to you? 2. Why did you choose your research topic(s)/field/school? . Why did you choose your undergraduate major? 4. What are your career goals? †¢ Where do you see yourself in 10 years? †¢ What do you hope to accomplish? †¢ What drives you? What motivates you? Stage III: Outline your Statement of Purpose 1. From the results of Stage II, determine a central theme/topic that stands out or dominates your reflections and brainstorm. 2. Using bulle t points and brief comments/statements, organize your reflections and brainstorm ideas that strengthen the central theme/topic of your statement of purpose. Concentrate on your life experiences and give specific examples. †¢ Put down only those things that excite you. †¢ Do not make things up! 3. Your outline should cover these areas and, preferably, in this order: †¢ What aspects of the school/department/program appeals to you? †¢ What are your research interest(s)? †¢ How did you become interested in your current research topic/area? †¢ How did you prepare or are preparing to address the issues in this research area/topic (i. e. research experiences, courses, etc. )? †¢ What are your future goals for graduate school (i. e. Ph. D. )? What are your career goals (i. e. professorship)? †¢ What characteristics of the school/department/program can help you accomplish your goals? †¢ What positive aspects do you bring to the school/department/p rogram? Stage IV: Write Draft of Statement of Purpose 1. When writing your statement of purpose: †¢ Always use positive language when referring to yourself. †¢ Give detailed, but concise examples. †¢ Use transition words, sentences and paragraphs. Your statement must read smoothly. †¢ Skip a line after each paragraph. †¢ Refrain from starting neighboring paragraphs the same way. Avoid using vocabulary that you do not know. †¢ Refrain from repeating yourself. †¢ Have strong opening and closing paragraph. †¢ Stay within the 2 – 3 page limit! †¢ Thank the admissions committee for their time at the end of your statement of purpose. Stage V: Ask for Critique, Revise and Edit 1. When you are finished with your draft statement of purpose, read it out loud to yourself and make corrections. 2. Ask friends, colleagues and professors to read your edited draft. Taking their comments into consideration, revise and edit your draft. EXAMPLE Courtesy of copyright  © 2012 Study Mode, Inc. The following is a shortened sample SOP (with technical details removed. ) Expert comments at the end of the paragraphs point out important features. After one year’s work experience as a research technician at  [redacted], one of the US’s leading research institutes, I want to return to academic study and undertake graduate studies in Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics at the University of  [redacted]. 1. Stating what you are doing now and what you are applying for is a simple, direct way of starting an SOP. After graduating with a first class degree from  [redacted], University of  [redacted], I felt I should gain some practical experience working in a research environment to gain first-hand knowledge of what the life of a research scientist entails. I have loved every minute of my work: especially the opportunity to participate in cutting-edge projects and discuss ideas with senior biologists. I soon realized that, although I enjoy handling the complex equipment and processing the results, I am not going to be satisfied with carrying out routine procedures under the direction of others. I want to be part of the team that directs the course of the project. My senior colleagues have encouraged my ambition and feel that I have the potential for graduate studies. 2. Notice how the student tries to analyze the reasons for her choices. My love of biology started in high school. We had a young and enthusiastic teacher, Mrs. [redacted], who took us on field trips and visits. She made sure we did as much practical work as was feasible, and demonstrated experiments that we hadn’t the equipment or time to do ourselves. She also encouraged us to read. I remember the impact reading Maynard Smith’s  The Theory of Evolution  had on me: I wanted to be able to explain such important ideas as clearly as he did. Quite naturally my first thoughts about a future career tended towards teaching – I wanted to be another Mrs. [redacted]. 3. It is good to explain how you became interested in your subject. However, don’t go too far back! Notice that a specific example helps create interest. At undergraduate level, my interests became more focused. Although physiology and ecology came easy to me, it was biochemistry and cell biology that really captured my interest. We were fortunate to have good laboratories and excellent professors. I found that cell biology was an interdisciplinary undertaking: today you need a foundation in chemistry, physics and even IT to be at the forefront in this subject. This interdisciplinary aspect of the subject suits my abilities well. I have always performed well in all science subjects and find it challenging to apply the knowledge to practical problems. For this reason I chose to undertake a project in my final year on the behavior of protein molecules in high energy fields at  [redacted]. The scientists at [redacted]  were impressed with my practical skills and were happy to give me a recommendation that led to my present job. 4. Details of courses and projects help to show focus. (This student went on to describe another important college project. She also gave a full description of her current scientific work. ) Many people have asked me why I did not proceed directly to graduate studies after graduating. The answer is that I wanted to make sure that I had chosen the right subject and the right place before embarking on a course of study that would involve many years of my life. The one-year gap has also given me time to work with the local Natural History Society: we take families on Sunday trips to the nearby National Park to help create awareness about environmental issues. I have also been a member and organizer of the  [redacted]  Film Society: we watch and discuss films from all over the world. I am looking forward to furthering my interest in film in the  [redacted]  Film club, at your university, and I also hope to use my passion for teaching in the  [redacted] Social Outreach program. . Explain the reasons for any unusual features of your career (taking a year out, poor performance, etc. ). Include social and extracurricular activities to show balance in your life or because they are relevant to the course. In selecting the University of  [redacted],  I have been influenced by the way your research program addresses biological questions at the levels of molecule, gene and cell. I am particularly looking forward to such courses as Devel opmental Biology and Bioinformatics. I am also excited to interact with Professors  [redacted]  and  [redacted]  whose work is closest to what I want to pursue for the original research component of the MS degree. I have been corresponding with  [redacted], a current student, from whom I have learned about the collaborative environment at  [redacted]  where I will interact with talented students, teachers and industry professionals. I believe that I will be able to contribute to and learn from the academically challenging environment at the University of  [redacted]. 6. Try to show that you are fully familiar with the course you are applying for. How to cite How to Write an Sop for Grad School, Essay examples